Pre-Hispanic goldworking societies developed special ways of understanding the world. With these, they gave order to their surroundings and filled them with symbolic content. These cosmologies answered problems that were central to their existence, such as death, illness, and the meaning of life. Imbued with a profound religious sense, they converted the universe, society and its creations into sacred realities, while establishing a link between man and his ancestors that was essential to the continuity of the traditions. Metals, particularly gold, symbolised the fertilising powers of the sun and expressed the divine origin of the power held by the rulers.

Chieftains, priests and shamans had the responsibility of guarding, transmitting and renewing cosmological representations. Endowed with special sensitivities and skills, they were subjected from childhood to lengthy learning processes about mythology, sacred plants, astronomy and ritual practices. With their words, gestures and objects as tools, they did a symbolic job, one which transformed the world in order to guarantee not only the wellbeing of society but also that nature would reproduce herself. Alongside them, the technical and at the same time magical work of the goldsmiths transformed metals into objects that had cultural meanings.

Many of the religious practices and beliefs of present-day indigenous societies are deeply rooted in their ancient past and were common to various peoples. It is thanks to these traditions, to documents from the time of the Conquest and the colonial era, and to archaeological research that we know about the thought systems of the goldworking societies. These peoples produced diverse cosmologies, but they also had similar ideas, because of their meetings and the fact that they shared cultural roots.

Pre-Hispanic thinkers, who included both men and women, developed body techniques to meditate and communicate with the supernatural world. When they sat in certain positions, they entered into states of intense concentration and evoked cosmological concepts.

Pre-Hispanic cosmologies told of the origin, evolution and structure of the universe; they gave all beings a place and a meaning, and established an order in their relations. The cosmos was depicted in some societies as consisting of various superimposed yet connected and inter-dependent levels or worlds, and certain colours, smells, animals, plants and spirits were associated with each one.

The universe manifested itself in a visible, material dimension, but also in another one, which was spiritual, powerful, and hidden to most people.

According to numerous American cosmologies, the universe was made up of three worlds. Mankind lived in the in the intermediate world, whereas gods, ancestors and other supernatural beings resided in the upper world or the underworld. The upper world and the underworld were conceived as having opposing and complementary characteristics, such as light/dark, male/female, or dry/wet. The middle world, where people lived, combined elements from the other two.

Goldworking societies classified flora and fauna and other beings in categories that were based on various principles, such as their shape, habitat, food and culture. They expressed these classifications in their objects. Birds symbolised the upper world. People, jaguars and deer personified the intermediate one, while the lower levels were represented by bats, caimans, snakes and other creatures which inhabited openings in the earth.

Society is viewed by Amerindian peoples as being united with nature. People, animals, plants and spirits together form a great cosmic society where relations all are identical to those of humans.

A rich and abundant symbolism of taboos, objects and ideas surrounded the chieftains and other dignitaries. They were viewed as descendants of divinities, and were considered to be related to powerful beings like the jaguar. Looking them in the face was forbidden, and their feet were not allowed to touch the ground; they had various wives, servants, and large homes surrounded by palisades; they were always borne aloft on poles, and they were the only ones who could wear certain ornaments or eat certain foods. When they died, they were mummified and placed in large tombs or in their enclosures, which henceforth became sanctuaries.

Emeralds, macaw feathers, sea shells, resins and other foreign items gave the chieftains prestige. These arrived from distant places that were unknown and mythical, via long barter chains. Because of its colour, intense shine and unchangeability, gold was associated with the sun. Gold ornaments expressed the celestial, divine origin of the rulers' power.

Chieftains adopted postures and gestures that differed from those of their subalterns. The meanings of these postures and gestures expressed their links with superior beings and levels. When the chieftain covered himself in gold, he appropriated the seminal, creative powers of the sun. He embodied on earth the powers of this deity from the upper world. In some societies, chieftains and captains could pierce their nose and ears at the end of their long training in special temples, so they could wear earrings and nose rings.

There is no radical difference in many Amerindian cosmic visions between humans and non-humans. Persons, animals, plants, rocks and objects are people, albeit different types of people, and all of them have a soul or spirit. Tapir-people, fish-people and the rest all live in communities, harvest, have their homes, and dance like men. Each people type has a particular way of viewing the world, its own perspective, which is determined by its body, a body-apparel that can be removed and changed at will. Putting on feathers or ornaments or painting the body means changing the body-apparel and transforming the view of the world.

A person decked out in the attire of animals, ancestors or mythical spirits thus incorporated the names, abilities and characteristics of these species or beings. Bird-women, vampire-men and snake-men reveal a universe of transmutations. When transformed into a vampire-man, the person observed the world upside down; as a bird-woman, the person moved into other dimensions of the cosmos.

With a "second skin" consisting of ornaments, paint and clothing, dancers entered a different reality and temporality. They perceived the world through the eyes of a crocodile, humming bird, plant, ancestor or divinity.

By transforming themselves into birds like condors, eagles, toucans and parrots, they acquired not only showy beaks and plumage but also extraordinary powers: flying high, sharp eyesight, and hunting skills. According to ancient myths, a number of black birds, ancient shamans, brought light to the earth in their beaks at the beginning of time and gave the first clans their land. Priests and shamans, some of them viewed as being genuine bird-men, made a magical flight through the universe. Their paraphernalia, with figures of birds, gave them powers to undertake long journeys.

Some societies taught parrots to talk, so they could sometimes use them to replace sacrifice victims. According to their thought, language had transformed these birds into humans.

The jaguar has been a symbol associated with religion and power since time immemorial in America. Material evidences and texts reveal that high-ranking persons had names which alluded to feline figures, they wore clothing made from the skins of such animals, they painted their bodies to imitate the animals' spots, and they wore tails and let their nails grow long. Their skulls were kept in temples while images of fierce felines acted as guardians. The Spanish chroniclers tell of how chieftains and priests were transformed into "large cats" and communicated with other jaguar spirits during their ceremonies.

The jaguar-shaman viewed his surroundings through the eyes of a feline, saw other jaguars as humans, and people in his community as prey. A situation that was both dangerous and fearsome for the people. When a dignitary was transformed into a jaguar, he acquired strength, agility, aggressiveness, sharp vision and astuteness. With these attributes, he protected and cured his people, or took revenge on his enemies.
Necklaces and other feline ornaments transformed the person into a true predator. He roared like thunder, breathed heavily, and threatened with his claws while his spirit wandered through the forest in search of prey.

Images of the Cosmos

Offerings and Sacrifices to the Immortals

Plants of Knowledge